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===== Date and country of first publication<ref>Date and country of first publication as informed by the Scopus database (December 2023).</ref>=====
1993<br>
United States
===== Definition =====

Legal segregation refers to the practice of separating people based on their race, ethnicity, religion, or other characteristics as mandated by laws or government policies. This form of segregation was prevalent in the United States prior to the Civil Rights movement, with laws enforcing separate facilities, services, and accommodations for different racial groups. Legal segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in landmark cases such as Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
===== Synonyms =====
The following terms are synonymous with legal segregation:

legalised segregation; legalized segregation; legislated segregation; legislative segregation.

References and literature addressing this segregation form under these synonymous terms can be found below.
==See also==
==Related segregation forms==
Legal segregation is frequently discussed in the literature with the following segregation forms:

[[racial segregation]], [[school segregation]], [[residential segregation]], [[housing segregation]], [[jim crow segregation]], [[historical segregation]], [[de facto segregation]]
[[File:legal_segregation.png|780x780px]]

This visualization is based on the study [[Segregation_Wiki:About| The Multidisciplinary Landscape of Segregation Research]].

For the complete network of interrelated segregation forms, please refer to:

* [https://tinyurl.com/2235lkhw First year of publication]

* [https://tinyurl.com/2d8wg5n3 Louvain clusters]

* [https://tinyurl.com/223udk5r Betweenness centrality]

* [https://tinyurl.com/244d8unz Disciplines in which segregation forms first emerged (Scopus database).]
==References==
==Notes==
<references />
{{NoteAI}}
==Legal segregation appears in the following literature==

Harris C.I. (1993). Whiteness as property. ''Harvard Law Review'', ''106''(8), 1709-1790. Harvard Law Review Association.https://doi.org/10.2307/1341787

Anderson G.M., Halcoussis D. (1996). The political economy of legal segregation: Jim crow and racial employment patterns. ''Economics and Politics'', ''8''(1), 1-15. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0343.1996.tb00117.x

Ball A.F. (1998). The value of recounting narratives: memorable learning experiences in the lives of inner city students and teachers. ''Narrative Inquiry'', ''8''(1), 151-180. John Benjamins Publishing Company.https://doi.org/10.1075/ni.8.1.07bal

Jackson Jr. J.P. (2). Blind law and powerless science: The American Jewish Congress, the NAACP, and the scientific case against discrimination, 1945 1950. ''ISIS'', ''91''(1), 89-116. University of Chicago Press.https://doi.org/10.1086/384627

Domke D. (2001). The press, race relations, and social change. ''Journal of Communication'', ''51''(2), 317-344. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/51.2.317

Larsen E.L. (2003). Integrating segregated urban landscapes of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. ''Historical Archaeology'', ''37''(3), 111-123. Society for Historical Archaeology.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03376615

Feagin J.R., Barnett B.M. (2004). Success and failure: How systemic racism trumped the Brown v. Board of Education decision. ''University of Illinois Law Review'', ''2004''(5), 1099-1130. https://doi.org/

Valencia R.R. (2005). The Mexican American struggle for equal educational opportunity in Mendez v. Westminster: Helping to pave the way for Brown v. Board of education. ''Teachers College Record'', ''107''(3), 389-423. Teachers College, Columbia University.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2005.00481.x

Jones D.M. (2007). Literary regionalism and the confinements of class: A revisionist historical reading of Jessie Fauset's Plum Bun. ''Tamkang Review'', ''38''(1), 87-115. https://doi.org/

Thompson-Miller R., Feagin J.R. (2007). The Reality and Impact of Legal Segregation in the United States. ''Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research'', 455-465. Springer Science and Business Media B.V..https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-70845-4_23

Fuligni A.J. (2007). Contesting stereotypes and creating identities: Social categories, social identities, and educational participation. ''Contesting stereotypes and creating identities: Social categories, social identities, and educational participation'', 1-274. Russell Sage Foundation.https://doi.org/

Beratan G.D. (2008). The song remains the same: Transposition and the disproportionate representation of minority students in special education. ''Race Ethnicity and Education'', ''11''(4), 337-354. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320802478820

Fairchild G.B., Robinson J.A. (2008). Unlearned lessons from Letter from Birmingham Jail: The work begun, the progress made, and the task ahead. ''Business and Society'', ''47''(4), 484-522. https://doi.org/10.1177/0007650308323696

Morris J.E. (2008). Research, ideology, and the Brown decision: Counter narratives to the historical and contemporary representation of Black schooling. ''Teachers College Record'', ''110''(4), 713-732. Teachers College, Columbia University.https://doi.org/

Washington S.H. (2008). Mrs. Block Beautiful: African American Women and the Birth of the Urban Conservation Movement, Chicago, Illinois, 1917 1954. ''Environmental Justice'', ''1''(1), 13-23. https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2008.0505

Palmer R., Gasman M. (2008). "It takes a village to raise a child": The role of social capital in promoting academic success for African American men at a black college. ''Journal of College Student Development'', ''49''(1), 52-70. Johns Hopkins University Press.https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2008.0002

Fontenot K. (2008). Sing it good, sing it strong, sing it loud: The music of governor Jimmie Davis. ''Shreveport Sounds in Black and White'', ''9781604733037''(), 46-57. University Press of Mississippi.https://doi.org/

Rose A.C. (2009). Psychology and selfhood in the segregated south. ''Psychology and Selfhood in the Segregated South'', 1-305. University of North Carolina Press.https://doi.org/

Dasgupta N. (2009). Color lines in the mind: Implicit prejudice, discrimination, and the potential for change. ''Twenty-First Century Color Lines: Multiracial Change in Contemporary America'', 97-117. Temple University Press.https://doi.org/

Tsunokai G.T., Kposowa A.J., Adams M.A. (2009). Racial preferences in Internet dating: A comparison of four birth cohorts. ''Western Journal of Black Studies'', ''33''(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/

Benjamin M. (201). A colored authors collection to exhibit to the world and educate a race. ''Education and the Culture of Print in Modern America'', 36-56. University of Wisconsin Press.https://doi.org/

Foner N., Alba R. (201). Immigration and the legacies of the past: The impact of slavery and the Holocaust on contemporary immigrants in the United States and Western Europe. ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'', ''52''(4), 798-819. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417510000447

Lagrand J.B. (201). The problems of preaching through history. ''Confessing History : Explorations in Christian Faith and the Historian's Vocation'', 187-213. University of Notre Dame Press.https://doi.org/

Clayson W.S. (201). Freedom is not enough: The war on poverty and the civil rights movement in Texas. ''Freedom is not Enough: The War on Poverty and the Civil Rights Movement in Texas'', 1-210. University of Texas Press.https://doi.org/

Thomas N., Levine P. (2011). Deliberative democracy and higher education: Higher education's democratic mission. ''"To Serve a Larger Purpose": Engagement for Democracy and the Transformation of Higher Education'', 154-176. Temple University Press.https://doi.org/

Viteritti J.P. (2011). Whose equality? the discouraging politics of American education (and what we might do about it). ''Perspectives on Politics'', ''9''(3), 585-596. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592711002799

Dickerson D.C. (2012). Formation and consolidation of African American religious communities, 1865 1945. ''The Cambridge History of Religions in America: Volume II 1790 to 1945'', 300-323. Cambridge University Press.https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521871099.015

Durrheim K. (2012). Two histories of prejudice. ''Psychology and History: Interdisciplinary Explorations'', 205-222. Cambridge University Press.https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139525404.015

Ellis S. (2013). Freedom’s pragmatist: Lyndon Johnson and civil rights. ''Freedom's Pragmatist: Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights'', 1-329. University Press of Florida.https://doi.org/

Brown R.A., Anderson R., Thompson J. (2013). “New” News, Hegemony and Representations of Black Male Athletes. ''Race and News: Critical Perspectives'', 64-87. Taylor and Francis.https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203876855-10

Cleveland K. (2013). Hiding in plain sight: Minority issues in Japan. ''Critical Issues in Contemporary Japan'', 213-222. Taylor and Francis.https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203797594-27

Feagin J.R. (2013). Systemic racism: A theory of oppression. ''Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression'', 1-365. Taylor and Francis.https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315880938

Marshall J.P. (2013). Student activism and civil rights in Mississippi: Protest politics and the struggle for racial justice, 1960 1965. ''Student Activism and Civil Rights in Mississippi: Protest Politics and the Struggle for Racial Justice, 1960-1965'', 1-300. Louisiana State University Press.https://doi.org/

Adams C.J. (2014). Race relations and the consequences of the great migration. ''A Companion to Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover'', 291-312. wiley.https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118834510.ch15

Prentiss C.R. (2014). Garland Anderson, race, and the limits of new thought in the age of Jim Crow. ''Nova Religio'', ''17''(3), 84-108. https://doi.org/10.1525/nr.2014.17.3.84

Armstrong D.F., Olson M.J. (2014). The history of Gallaudet university: 150 years of a deaf American institution. ''The History of Gallaudet University: 150 Years of a Deaf American Institution'', 1-200. Gallaudet University Press.https://doi.org/

Powers J.M. (2014). On separate paths: The Mexican American and African American legal campaigns against school segregation. ''American Journal of Education'', ''121''(1), 29-55. University of Chicago Press.https://doi.org/10.1086/678124

Powers J.M. (2014). On separate paths: The Mexican American and African American legal campaigns against school segregation. ''American Journal of Education'', ''121''(1), 29-55. University of Chicago Press.https://doi.org/10.1086/678124

Isaacs-Martin W. (2015). Issues of race, ethnicity, socio economic position and spatial acknowledgement in South Africa: How spatial access and expression still perpetuate notions of difference, separation and uncertainty amongst the South African coloured1 population. ''International Journal of African Renaissance Studies'', ''10''(1), 120-140. Taylor and Francis Ltd..https://doi.org/10.1080/18186874.2015.1050219

Berrey S.A. (2015). The jim crow routine: Everyday performances of race, civil rights, and segregation in Mississippi. ''The Jim Crow Routine: Everyday Performances of Race, Civil Rights, and Segregation in Mississippi'', 1-331. University of North Carolina Press.https://doi.org/

Newmark J. (2015). The pluralist imagination from east to west in American literature. ''The Pluralist Imagination from East to West in American Literature'', 1-151. University of Nebraska Press.https://doi.org/

Hutchison P. (2015). The Harlan Renaissance: Colorblindness and White Domination in Justice John Marshall Harlan’s Dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson. ''Journal of African American Studies'', ''19''(4), 426-447. Springer New York LLC.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-015-9316-y

Hodge S.R. (2015). Black male studentathletes' academic and athletic experiences at HBCUs. ''Diversity in Higher Education'', ''16''(), 91-119. Emerald Group Publishing Ltd..https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-364420140000016006

Aucoin B.J. (2016). Thomas Goode Jones: Race, politics, and justice in the new South. ''Thomas Goode Jones: Race, Politics, and Justice in the New South'', 1-236. University of Alabama Press.https://doi.org/

Stout V., Kretschmer K., Stout C. (2016). The Continuing Significance of History: An Active Learning Simulation to Teach About the Origins of Racial Inequality. ''Journal of Political Science Education'', ''12''(2), 230-240. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2015.1067625

Gomberg P. (2017). Workers without rights. ''Symposion'', ''4''(1), 49-76. Gheorghe Zane Institute for Economic and Social Research, Romanian Academy, Iasi Branch.https://doi.org/10.5840/symposion2017413

Williams N.A. (2017). The Black kitchen table agreement: the power of silence during the era of Trump. ''International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education'', ''30''(10), 975-981. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2017.1312606

Krysan M., Crowder K. (2017). Cycle of segregation: Social processes and residential stratification. ''Cycle of Segregation: Social Processes and Residential Stratification'', 1-321. Russell Sage Foundation.https://doi.org/

Mueller J.C. (2017). Producing Colorblindness: Everyday Mechanisms of White Ignorance. ''Social Problems'', ''64''(2), 219-238. Oxford University Press.https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spw061

Halpin D.P. (2018). “The struggle for land and liberty”: Segregation, violence, and african american resistance in Baltimore, 1898 1918. ''Journal of Urban History'', ''44''(4), 691-712. SAGE Publications Inc..https://doi.org/10.1177/0096144215589923

Gupta A. (2018). Vedana of bias: Latent likes and dislikes fuelling barriers to human connection. ''Contemporary Buddhism'', ''19''(1), 145-159. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2018.1453238

McLaughlin-Stonham H. (2018). Transport and turmoil: The turbulent racial history of transport in new orleans. ''European Journal of American Culture'', ''37''(2), 141-157. Intellect Ltd..https://doi.org/10.1386/ejac.37.2.141_1

Thompson-Miller R., Feagin J.R. (2018). The Reality and Impact of Legal Segregation in the United States. ''Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research'', 203-213. Springer Science and Business Media B.V..https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76757-4_12

Wilson W.J. (2018). Being Poor, Black, and American. ''Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective'', 347-357. Taylor and Francis.https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429494642-45

McCormick J. (2019). Mendez v. Westminster: Domestic and international forces underlying the fight for school desegregation. ''Journal of American Ethnic History'', ''39''(1), 5-34. University of Illinois Press.https://doi.org/10.5406/jamerethnhist.39.1.0005

Ries L. (2019). Pha 2018 conference poster session. ''Pennsylvania History'', ''86''(2), 287-292. Penn State University Press.https://doi.org/10.5325/PENNHISTORY.86.2.0287

Sol K., Hill-Jarrett T.G. (2021). Psychosocial and Physical Contextual Factors in Cognitive Aging in Older Blacks. ''Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Volume 41, 2021: Black Older Adults in the Era of Black Lives Matter'', 327-362. Springer Publishing Company.https://doi.org/10.1891/0198-8794.41.327

Swanson M.L., Whetstone S., Illangasekare T., Autry A. (2021). Obstetrics and Gynecology and Reparations: The Debt We Owe (and Continue to Accumulate). ''Health Equity'', ''5''(1), 353-355. Mary Ann Liebert Inc..https://doi.org/10.1089/heq.2021.0015

Dyreson M., Sikes M.M. (2022). ‘A Democracy That Will Know Not the Differences of Race’: American ‘Globetrotting’ in South Africa from the 1920s through the 1980s in Perspective. ''International Journal of the History of Sport'', ''39''(8-9), 1088-1098. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2022.2121067

Valenzuela-Bustos A., Gálvez-Mozo A., Alcalde-Gonzalez V. (2022). Invisible Room Attendants: Outsourcing as a Dispositive of (In)visibility and the Resistance of Las Kellys in Spain. ''Work, Employment and Society'', -. SAGE Publications Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1177/09500170221092353

Mickelson R.A., Ayscue J.B., Bottia M.C., Wilson J.J. (2022). The Past, Present, and Future of Brown’s Mandate: A View from North Carolina. ''American Behavioral Scientist'', ''66''(6), 770-803. SAGE Publications Inc..https://doi.org/10.1177/00027642211033296

Legal segregation - Revision history

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